# IFRC House Style and Guidelines ## IFRC House Style: standard usage ### Standard spelling The standard spelling used by IFRC is the Oxford English Dictionary preferred spelling. This includes the -ize suffix, not the -ise one, e.g., organize; organization. Alternative spellings, which appear in brackets in the Oxford English Dictionary, should only be used if they are part of a name, title or quotation, e.g.: * [x] the US Department of **Defense** (Oxford English Dictionary = defence) ### Capitalization Overcapitalization is common and is often used incorrectly for emphasis. However, it slows down reading speed, is uncomfortable on the eye, and can appear pompous. When used online, the reader will feel that you’re shouting at them. Use initial capitals for proper nouns and names: * [x] **Department for International Development** * [x] **Governing Board** * [x] **Élysée** Do not capitalize temporary committees, teams or units: * [x] **migration task force** * [x] **inclusion journey team** Capitalize the names of books, films and other major works in the usual way. Capitalize first words and all words apart from prepositions and conjunctions. These should also be italicized e.g. the World Disasters Report. Always use lower case for rough descriptions or references. * [x] **the strategy** (*Strategy 2030*) * [x] **the programme** (the water and sanitation programme) * [x] the Canadian **development agency** (Canadian International Development Agency) * [x] the Chinese **government** * [x] **states parties** to the Geneva Conventions * [x] **resolution 7** of the Council of Delegates Use upper case for definite geographical places, regions, areas, titles and countries. * [x] **South-East Asia** * [x] **Mexico City** * [x] **The Hague** * [x] **the Netherlands** * [x] **the Middle East** * [x] **Western Europe** (political concept) but **eastern Europe** (general description) * [x] **The Global South** * [x] **South Africa** but **southern Africa** * [x] **Eastern Cape** (the name of the province) * [x] Tourism is **eastern Africa's** main industry Use lower case for points of the compass. * [x] **east, west, north, south** * [x] Hospitals in the **north-west** of the country treat more than 900 patients a day. Use lower case for seasons of the year in running text. * [x] The strategy will be updated in **spring** 2025. Use upper case for seasons in the title of a publication. * [x] Red Cross Red Crescent Magazine, **Autumn** 2022 Use capitals for titles of people. Use lower case when referring to the office or appointment. * [x] He saw **President Samia Suluhu Hassan** *but* He saw the Tanzanian president**.** * [x] We met **King Charles III** *but* We met the **king** of the United Kingdom. * [x] The **chief executive** of the Burundi Red Cross * [x] The **Chinese health minister** Use capitals for established labels (-isms, -ists, -ites etc.). * [x] Buddhism * [x] Christian * [x] Hinduism * [x] Islam Also use: * [x] Koran * [x] Bible ### Hyphens There are no simple rules for hyphens in English, but, as with capital letters, they should be used sparingly. However, there are some cases where hyphens must be used. Hyphenate compounds when used attributively (before a noun). When using predicatively (after a noun), use space. * [x] The **out-of-date** research paper * [x] The research paper is **out of date.** * [x] An **80-year-old** woman * [x] The woman is **80 years old.** Hyphenate fractions (whether nouns or adjectives). * [x] **two-thirds** * [x] **four-fifths** * [x] **one-sixth** Hyphenate quarters of the compass. * [x] **north-west** * [x] **south-east** Words with prefixes such as anti-, neo-, non- and pro- should generally be hyphenated. * [x] a**nti-American** * [x] **non-existent** * [x] **non-violent** * [x] **pro-European** Exceptions are: * [x] **Nonconformist** * [x] **Nonplussed** * [x] **Neoclassicism** * [x] **Neolithic** * [x] **neologism** Hyphenate all nouns formed from prepositional verbs. A prepositional verb is one which is extended or changed in meaning by a preposition. When such a verb is used as a noun, it is always hyphenated. * [x] At the end, the chair **will round up** the discussion. (verb) * [x] The discussion ended with **a round-up** by the chair. (noun) * [x] It was agreed that support to migrants **must be scaled up**. (verb) * [x] The IFRC is **scaling-up** its support to migrants. (noun) Hyphenate adjectives composed of two or more words. * [x] **day-to-day** problems * [x] **up-to-date** information * [x] **ten-year** conflict * [x] **French-** and **Italian-speaking** journalists * [x] **conflict-affected** countries * [x] **best-** and **worst-funded** disasters Note the difference between simple adverbial use and the adjectival form. * [x] IFRC is **well organized.** * [x] A **well-organized** IFRC will be more effective. Use hyphens with short adverbs only, for example, well, ill, most. * [x] **ill-advised** action * [x] **most-favoured** employee Omit the hyphen with adverbs ending in -ly. * [x] the **relatively expensive** drugs * [x] the **increasingly active** youth programme English has evolved so that two words have combined to become one word, and some prefixes have merged into their noun or adjective. If in doubt, refer to the Oxford English Dictionary (see also: Annex 1 – Preferred spellings). **One-word nouns:** * [x] ceasefire * [x] coastguard * [x] foothold * [x] override * [x] peacekeepers/peacekeeping * [x] subcommittee * [x] toolkit **Some nouns with two hyphens:** * [x] no-man's-land * [x] prisoners-of-war **The presence of a hyphen can change the meaning of some words and phrases:**
No hyphenHyphen
represent (act as, stand for, fill the place of) re-present (present again)
resort to (turn to) re-sort (sort again)
the little used car (the small second-hand car) the little-used car (the car is not used often)
20 odd donations (20 donations that were odd) 20-odd donations (about 20 donations)
**Some examples of words made up of two unhyphenated words:** * [x] air force * [x] case study * [x] coal miner * [x] common sense (noun) but common-sense (adjective) * [x] death toll * [x] think tank Some examples of words made up of two hyphenated words: * [x] information-sharing * [x] know-how * [x] life-saving * [x] policy-maker * [x] well-being Another important use of the hyphen is to mark word breaks at the end of lines. Avoid using too many word breaks as they slow down reading speed. When you hyphenate, break words into their constituent parts and avoid making unintentional words such as butt-ress. ### Accents Only include the accent on non-Anglophone words that have been absorbed into English if omitting the accent would change the pronunciation. Include the accent for café, cliché and façade, but not for elite. If in doubt, refer to the Oxford English Dictionary. Accents should always be used on non-Anglophone names. ### Prefixes The normal rule is to use a hyphen to avoid a doubling of the same vowel: * [x] **re-elect, pre-empt** * [x] but **readopt, coexist, prearrange** The Oxford English Dictionary and The New Fowler's Modern English Usage both abandon the hyphen in cooperate, coordinate, but retain it in words such as co-opt where pronunciation is important. ### Double consonants Consonants are often doubled when a suffix is added: * [x] **expel, expelled** * [x] **fulfil, fulfilled** * [x] **rebel, rebellious** * [x] **quarrel, quarrelling** All other consonants are doubled when the pronunciation stress falls on the final vowel before the suffix: * [x] **regret, regretted, regrettable** * [x] **commit, committed, committing** * [x] **but credit, credited, creditable** {% hint style="info" %} Note: beware of some words which are both nouns and verbs, and pronounced differently, for example, **object, project.** The noun is stressed on the first syllable and the verb on the second. Here the rule does not apply - the suffix form is **objected, projecting.** {% endhint %} ## Standard usage ### Apostrophes The apostrophe is used in English to: * indicate possession * indicate that something is omitted or contracted {% hint style="warning" %} Do not confuse it's (it is), with its (the possessive pronoun). {% endhint %} **It's** not a successful institution. **Its** staff members are demotivated, and **it’s** no wonder that **its** programmes are not well planned. **Use the normal possessive ('s) after singular words, but not after names that end in s:** * [x] the delegate's report * [x] the manager’s decision * [x] the boss' car * [x] The Italian Red Cross' headquarters * [x] Dr Jones' lecture **Use the normal possessive ('s) after plurals that do not end in s:** * [x] children's toys * [x] people’s complaints * [x] the media's attention **Use the plural possessive (s') on plurals that end in s, including plural names that take a singular verb:** * [x] the bosses' annoyance * [x] Reuters' data * [x] Barclays’ sponsorship **Although singular in other respects, the United States, the United Nations, the Philippines etc., have a plural possessive apostrophe.** * [x] The United States' new training centre for first aid. **Use an apostrophe for the meaning ‘worth of’.** * [x] She has five years' experience. * [x] She will go on mission in a month's time. **Sometimes in modern English, the possessive is avoided by using the noun as an adjective. For example:** * [x] The IFRC’s Regional Office in Nairobi (proper possessive) * [x] The IFRC Regional Office in Nairobi Both are common, but **the first is preferred.** The second form is sometimes used when there is no acceptable adjective. ### Omission or contraction **The apostrophe is also used to show something is omitted.** For formal writing, do not use contraction. * [x] it's (it is) * [x] it'll (it will) * [x] I'd (I would) **Do not put apostrophes in decades or abbreviations which are straight plurals.** * [x] NGOs * [x] the 2020s * [x] USGs ### Punctuation ### **Full stops, commas, brackets, en dashes and exclamation marks.** **Do not use full stops in abbreviations and acronyms.** * [x] UN * [x] ICRC * [x] WHO **But one important exception is for post office box numbers in addresses.** * [x] P.O. Box 372 **Use full stops in lower case abbreviations** such as **e.g.** and **i.e.** **Do not use full stops after titles such as:** * [x] Dr * [x] Mr * [x] Ms * [x] Mrs For royal titles, use the following abbreviations:
AbbreviationFull title
HHHis Highness or Her Highness
HMHis Majesty or Her Majesty
HIHHis Majesty or Her Majesty
HRHHis Royal Highness or Her Royal Highness
HSHHis Serene Highness or Her Serene Highness
**Do not abbreviate His Excellency to H.E., instead use the title in full, e.g. His Excellency Ambassador Mahmood.** For information on the correct protocol to use when writing about high-level people or when addressing IFRC correspondence to them, please consult the IFRC Protocol Handbook **The position of the comma can change the meaning of a sentence:** * [x] However, we learned it was going to be a slow process. * [x] However we learned, it was going to be a slow process. Use commas after expressions of time when they begin a sentence: * [x] Yesterday, the Secretary General met a delegation from the Colombian Red Cross Society. * [x] On 6 February 2023, a powerful earthquake rocked Türkiye and Syria. Do not use a comma before ‘and’ in lists (the Oxford Comma): * [x] The emergency kit contained jerry cans, cutlery and blankets. But the Oxford Comma should be used where appropriate to ensure what you have written makes sense: * [x] The emergency kit contained jerry cans, knives and forks, and blankets. * [x] I want to thank my parents, Michelle Yeoh, and Idris Elba. The Oxford English Dictionary describes parenthesis as “a word, clause or sentence inserted as an explanation or afterthought into a passage which is grammatically complete without it, and usually marked off by brackets, dashes or commas”. Use commas for a routine, weak parenthesis: * [x] A survey conducted by FAO, in April 2023, found that… * [x] All staff, including part-timers, can benefit from… To mark a strong but unemphatic parenthesis, usually to explain rather than to comment, use round brackets: * [x] The next growing season (January to March) is expected to… When the parenthesis forms part of a sentence, the full stop comes after the second round bracket (as here). (However, when the whole sentence is a parenthesis, as here, then the full stop comes before the second bracket.) For a parenthesis that is added by the writer or editor, either to explain or to comment, use square brackets: * [x] According to the report: “The reduced availability of transportation and curfew \[due to the conflict] had a significant impact on…” To mark a strong and emphatic parenthesis, to comment rather than to explain, use dashes: * [x] The other organizations – the vast majority NGOs – were prevented from operating in the area. Do not use exclamation marks in non-fiction writing. However, it is acceptable to do so if reporting the shock – or joy - of a community member supported by the IFRC network. * [x] “I really thought I was going to die! It was terrible,” said the teenager, who was rescued from the rubble the day after the earthquake. * [x] The farmer expressed his delight at how the drought-resistant seeds had transformed his crops. “It is incredible! This is the first season for many years that I have not worried how I will feed my family,” he said. #### Colons Use a colon to separate a general statement from specifics, usually putting the general statement first. * [x] The delegates distributed necessary relief items: blankets, stoves and hygiene parcels. Use a colon before a whole quoted sentence, but not before a quotation that begins mid- sentence: * [x] She said: “It will never work.” * [x] He retorted that it had “always worked before”. Use a colon for antithesis or contrasts. * [x] The rich get richer: the poor get poorer. Colons are also used to introduce bulleted lists and numbered lists. #### Bulleted lists and numbered lists Lists that are not whole sentences should start with lower case. Do not add full stops, semicolons or commas at the end of each bullet. Instead, use a full stop at the end of the final bullet to indicate the end of the section. Such lists should start with either all nouns or all verbs. Do not mix nouns and verbs. **In lists that include infinitive verbs, ensure ‘to’ appears before the colon (not semicolon) and is not repeated each time.** The regional conference is an opportunity to: * identify and analyse major challenges * coordinate Red Cross and Red Crescent action * involve at-risk communities * tackle social exclusion and discrimination. **Use bullet points not numbers unless the number of items is relevant, e.g.:** Such an approach constitutes three main elements: 1. ensuring effective, evidence-based subsidies 2. enhancing market access 3. strengthening the links between science and policy. **If lists are whole sentences, start each item with a capital letter and end with a full stop.** The study highlighted the following issues: * *Strategy 2030* has encouraged greater focus on community-based responses. * A regional or sub-regional focus and support network has been successful in some areas. * There is a high degree of donor dependency and a lack of effective marketing. ### Dates, time, numbers, measurements and currencies #### Dates Use the British date format, not the US one. Format dates in the following order and style: day, month, year. * [x] 2 May 2024 * [x] 12 August 2023 {% hint style="danger" %} Not 2nd May 2024 or 12th August 2023 or August 12, 2023 {% endhint %} {% hint style="info" %} Note: 10.12.23 means 10 December 2023 in Britain and 12 October 2023 in the United States. {% endhint %} Do not use figures for dates. When using a date range with a preposition, use ‘to’ and not an en dash. * [x] From 2019 to 2022 (not From 2019–2022). Write out date ranges in full, using a hyphen to separate the years. * [x] 2020-2023 (not 2020-23) Use: the 2010s, a woman in her 30s, their 33rd birthday. When writing about centuries, spell out to tenth century and use figures from 11th century onwards. * [x] seventh century * [x] 21st century #### Time Use the 24-hour clock written as 16:30 (not 16h30 or 16.30). #### Numbers Write out in full numbers up to ten. * [x] There were six refugee camps in the country. * [x] We needed ten trucks to make the deliveries. Use figures for numbers from 11 and above. * [x] The river was 15 kilometres from the camp. Use figures for numbers below and above ten in the same sentence. * [x] There were 19 small ones, 10 medium-sized and 8 large. Use figures with percentages. * [x] 7%, 8.2%, between 5 and 15% Use figures for sums of money. * [x] The centre cost 60,000 Swiss francs to build. Use figures for resolutions and articles. * [x] Article 1 states that… * [x] Resolution 12 of IFRC’s code. Use figures for the results of a vote. * [x] Resolution 15 was adopted with 45 votes for, 7 against, and 3 abstentions. Use figures with the words million, billion, etc. * [x] 6 million people, 1 billion Swiss francs Never start a sentence with a figure. Write the number in words or turn the sentence around. * [x] Seventeen children were rescued. * [x] The number of children rescued was 17. Write out in full numbers used figuratively. * [x] I’ve told them a hundred times. Write million in full. Use billion to mean a thousand million. Do not use “mio” to represent “million”. Use commas with numbers of four digits and over in general text. * [x] 19,650 * [x] 12,000,000 Use figures for decimals, using a full stop. * [x] 6.7, 120.33, 0.25 (not .25) Hyphenate fractions and spell out in words. * [x] two-thirds, one-eighth, thirteen-sixteenths Use common fractions or percentages rather than decimals where possible. * [x] Three-quarters of the staff members at the school are women. Do not use Roman numerals. Not everyone is familiar with them and their use is unnecessary. However, there are situations where convention requires them to be used, e.g. Queen Margrethe II of Denmark. #### Measurements Except when the specific context demands it, use metric forms in the English spelling. * [x] metres, litres, not meters, liters * [x] tonnes, not metric tons or MT (Ton = US or Imperial ton) * [x] kilometres (km), kilograms (kg), hectare (ha) * [x] centimetres (cm), millimetres (mm) When writing out measurements, the figure should be followed by a space then the unit of measurement. * [x] 300 kilometres * [x] 50 kilograms * [x] 20 hectares When using the abbreviated form, there should be no space after the figure. * [x] 300km * [x] 50kg * [x] 20ha #### Currencies IFRC works in Swiss francs and uses this currency in its documents and publications. Where necessary, e.g., for a particular audience, you can include a conversion of the amount in US dollars, euro, or a local currency. * [ ] The IFRC is appealing for 100,000 Swiss francs (112,068 US dollars/16.3 million Kenyan Shillings). {% hint style="danger" %} Note: never use the symbol ‘$’ on its own to represent the US dollar, as this could be confused with the currencies of Australia, Canada, Hong Kong and New Zealand. For greater clarity, write out in full, e.g., 750,000 Canadian dollars. {% endhint %} Leave a space between the currency and the amount. * [x] 6 billion euro * [x] 70,000 Swiss francs * [x] 15 US dollars If using CHF in a table, add a footnote explaining CHF = Swiss francs. For less common currencies, use the full name with the abbreviation\* in round brackets at the first mention. * [x] 20 Malawi kwacha (MWK) The abbreviation should be used thereafter, followed by the amount. * [x] MWK 3,000 {% hint style="info" %} \*Refer to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) list for currency names and their associated three-letter codes. {% endhint %} ### Italics and quotations #### Italics Italics are used for the titles of publications. Use sparingly if writing for the web – italicised text is read with a strong emphasis, just as text in all capitals is perceived as shouting. Use italics for the titles of books, newspapers and publications, plays, radio and television programmes, and films. If the definite article (the) is part of the title, then this should also be italicised. * [x] *The Times of India, The New Humanitarian, The Economist* * [x] but the *Financial Times,* the *New Straits Times,* the *Yorkshire Post* Use italics for the names of IFRC publications and documents. However, a distinction needs to be made between publications and documents, which take italics, and policies, guidelines and initiatives, which do not. * [x] *Strategy 2030*, *World Disasters Report*, the *Everyone Counts* report. * [x] **but** One WASH, emergency response policy #### Quotations IFRC style is to use double quotation marks. * [x] “This is the worst earthquake this decade,” the Secretary General said, “and the people affected will require long-term help.” Whether the punctuation at the break comes within the quotation marks or outside is determined by the punctuation in the original statement. * [x] “The challenge is enormous,” she said; “we have to meet it.” * [x] “The challenge is enormous”, she said, “and we have to meet it.” Quotations within quotations take single quotation marks. * [x] He said: “I really meant to say, ‘I’m sorry’.” #### References and bibliographies Published works should be listed in alphabetical order. Examples of IFRC style for references and bibliographies, covering a range of different types of sources, are listed below. Follow the formatting given, depending on the type of source quoted. For books: * [x] Ruamps, C. *The Humanitarian Exit Dilemma:* The Moral Cost of Withdrawing Aid. (Routledge, 2023). * [x] Duffield, M. *Post-Humanitarianism:* Governing Precarity in the Digital World. (Polity, 2019) For articles in journals and magazines: * [x] Aloudat, T. and Khan, T. *Decolonising humanitarianism or humanitarian aid?:* PLOS Glob Public Health 2(4) e0000179. , 2022. For newspaper articles: * [x] Nogrady, B. ‘What happens to your body during extreme heat?’, *The Guardian,* 29 January 2024. For news reports: * [x] *The New Humanitarian.* Devastating floods add to Afghanistan's climate woes. 14 May 2024. * [x] BBC. Waterborne disease outbreak after Brazil floods kills four. 26 May 2024. For official papers and reports: * [x] Solferino Academy. *Humanitarian Leadership for the Future: When 2023 is the new 2030.* (2023) * [x] IFRC. *Global Plan 2025.* (2024) ### Place names #### Countries Use the English form in the IFRC Directory, which includes the correct formulation in English of National Society names. * [x] **Gambia** *not* The Gambia * [x] **Lebanon** *not* the Lebanon * [x] **Myanmar** *not* Burma * [x] **Sudan** *not* The Sudan * [x] **Timor-Leste** *not* East Timor * [x] **Ukraine** *not* The Ukraine * [x] **Viet Nam** *not* Vietnam #### Cities and other places Use the standard English spelling, not the original language. * [x] Basel * [x] Bern * [x] Lyon * [x] Marseille * [x] Antwerp * [x] Hanover #### Collective nouns Some English writers use a plural verb after some nouns with a collective sense, for example, "the government are…“. Do not imitate. If the sense is a single entity, use a singular verb. This is true for all governments, companies and organizations. * [x] The IFRC’s General Assembly is… * [x] The United Nations is… * [x] The Philippines is… * [x] The government has… * [x] The management is… For the word ‘number’ itself. * [x] The number of casualties is increasing by the hour. **but** * [x] A number of villagers are prepared to relocate. #### Titles Because national usage varies so greatly, do not use titles if possible. On second mention, repeat the person's full name or use the personal pronoun. * [x] Mark Duffield has written an interesting book on the humanitarian sector’s growing reliance on data. He looks at the problems facing… * [x] This is Mark Duffield’s eighth academic work related to… #### IFRC departments and job titles In general, use lower case when referring to the specific names of departments. * [x] The communications department has… Use lower case when referring in general terms to the role or function of a department. * [x] IFRC’s finance department has… Use lower case when referring to the department in general terms. * [x] The department has… Use capitals for job titles when writing out the person’s name, followed by their job title. * [x] Person McPerson, Team Leader. When referring to their job title in passing, use lower case. * [x] Person McPerson, the IFRC’s team leader responsible for… ### Miscellaneous points #### **That or which?** Use **‘that’** in defining clauses. * [x] The houses **that** IFRC built have provided a new home for more than 200 families. Use **‘which’** in informative clauses. * [x] The houses that IFRC built, **which** are made of bamboo, have provided a new home for more than 200 families. As a general rule, if a clause cannot be deleted without removing information essential to the sentence, preface it with ‘that’. If the information in the clause can be omitted without rendering the main clause meaningless, then preface it with ‘which’. **Never use ‘that’ or ‘which’ to refer to a person.** Avoid the unnecessary use of ‘that’. * [x] She said she was going to… * [x] **not** She said that she was going to… #### Forward slash * [x] Do not use / (forward slash) to mean ‘or’. **Fewer, less** For countable nouns, use ‘fewer’. * [x] There were fewer children than teachers. For non-countable nouns, use ‘less’. * [x] There was less wine than water. **Ampersands** * [x] Do not use the ampersand (&) unless for book titles and authors, or if it forms part of an organization’s name. Use ‘and’ for running text. **Web addresses** When writing for an online audience, add a hyperlink to the text so that readers can click through. * [x] ifrc.org (not [http://www.ifrc.org](http://www.ifrc.org/)) Use a full stop after a web address when this appears at the end of a sentence. * [x] For more information, visit [www.ifrc.org](http://www.ifrc.org). #### Email addresses A person’s name is not always apparent from their email address. When quoting an email address as a contact, use the person’s name as well as the address. Add a full stop when the email address appears at the end of a sentence. E.g.: * [x] For more information on the IFRC’s House Style, please contact Alison Freebairn at . This applies to print as well as online. However, online, the email address can be presented as a hyperlink. * [x] For more information on the IFRC’s House Style, please contact [Alison Freebairn](mailto:alison.freebairn@ifrc.org). #### Trade marks A trade mark is a brand, symbol or word registered and protected by law to safeguard a manufacturer’s product or intellectual property and prevent competitors and others from using it, e.g. Fibreglass, Land Rover, Scotch Tape. Do not use trade marks unless they are important to the text. Use a generic equivalent instead. #### Over, more than Use ‘more than’ rather than ‘over’. * [x] The earthquake affected more than 75,000 people. * [x] not The earthquake affected over 75,000 people.